Remote and Robotic Investigations of the Solar System 1st Edition by Kitchin 9781498704946 0367871661

Part I The Detection and Investigation of Solar System Objects via Electromagnetic Radiation

Chapter 1 The Extended Optical Region

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Telescopes and Cameras

1.2.1 Reflecting Cameras

1.2.1.1 Prime Focus Systems

1.2.1.2 Cassegrain Systems

1.2.1.3 Ritchey–Chrétien Systems

1.2.1.4 Catadioptric Systems

1.2.1.5 Gregorian Systems

1.2.1.6 Custom-Designed Systems

1.2.2 Refracting Cameras

1.2.2.1 Telescope-Type Systems

1.2.2.2 Camera-Type Systems

1.2.2.3 Panoramic Systems

1.3 Spectroscopy and Spectrographs

1.3.1 Introduction

1.3.2 Basic Spectroscopy

1.3.3 Spectrographs

1.3.4 Spectral Features

1.3.5 Examples of Spectrographic Instruments

1.4 Detectors

1.4.1 Electron–Hole Pair Production-Based Detectors

1.4.1.1 Introduction

1.4.1.2 CCDs

1.4.1.3 Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Detectors

1.4.1.4 Photodiodes

1.4.2 Thermal Detectors

1.4.3 Photoelectric Effect-Based Detectors

1.4.3.1 Introduction

1.4.3.2 Microchannel Plates

1.4.3.3 Photomultipliers

1.4.3.4 Image Intensifiers

1.4.3.5 Detectors of Historical Interest

Chapter 2 Microwave and Radio Regions

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Telescopes, Receivers and Detectors

2.3 Direct Emissions from Solar System Objects

2.3.1 Introduction

2.3.2 Space-Based Observations

2.4 Radar

2.4.1 Introduction

2.4.2 Physical Principles of Radar Systems

2.4.3 Terrestrially Based Instruments

2.4.4 Spacecraft-Based Instruments

2.4.4.1 Introduction

2.4.4.2 Synthetic Aperture Radar

2.4.4.3 Imaging Radar Spacecraft Missions

2.4.4.4 Altitude, Doppler, Terrain and Other Radars

2.4.4.5 Ground-Penetrating Radar

2.4.4.6 Occultations

2.5 Spectroscopy

Chapter 3 X-Ray and γ Ray Regions

3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 Early Observations

3.1.1.1 X-Rays

3.1.1.2 Gamma Rays

3.1.2 X- and γ Ray Sources

3.2 Detectors

3.2.1 Introduction

3.2.2 Proportional Counters and Related Instruments

3.2.3 Scintillation Detectors

3.2.4 Microchannel Plates and Related Instruments

3.2.5 Solid State Detectors and Related Instruments

3.2.5.1 Charge-Coupled Devices

3.2.5.2 Semiconductor-Based Detectors

3.2.5.3 Calorimeter

3.3 Imagers

3.3.1 Multi-Layer Reflectors

3.3.2 Glancing Incidence Reflectors

3.3.2.1 Macroscopic Systems

3.3.2.2 Microscopic Systems

3.3.3 Collimators

3.3.3.1 Pin-Hole Cameras

3.3.3.2 Honeycomb Collimators

3.3.4 Coded Masks

3.4 Spectroscopes

3.4.1 Grating-Based Spectroscopes

3.4.1.1 Transmission Gratings

3.4.1.2 Reflection Gratings

3.4.2 Bragg Diffraction-Based Spectrometers

Part II The Detection and Investigation of Sub-Atomic, Atomic and Molecular Particles

Chapter 4 Detectors

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Detectors

4.2.1 Geiger Counters

4.2.2 Ion Chambers

4.2.3 Proportional Counters

4.2.4 Scintillation Detectors

4.2.5 Microchannel Plates

4.2.5.1 Channel Electron Multiplier

4.2.6 Solid State Detectors

4.2.6.1 Semiconductors and the Band Structure of Solids

4.2.6.2 Solid State Detectors

4.2.7 Transition Radiation Detectors

4.2.8 Calorimeter

4.2.9 Čerenkov Detectors

Chapter 5 Ion Optics and Charged Particle Instrumentation

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Ion Optics and Charged Particle Instrumentation

5.2.1 Electrostatic Analyser

5.2.2 Electrostatic Lenses

5.2.3 Electrostatic Prisms

5.2.3.1 Quadrupole Beam Deflector

5.2.4 Magnetic Interactions

5.2.4.1 Introduction

5.2.4.2 Magnetic Lenses

5.2.5 Velocity Selectors and Spectrometers

5.2.5.1 Velocity Selector

5.2.5.2 Velocity Spectrometer

5.2.5.3 Ion Drift Meters

5.2.6 Mass Spectrometers

5.2.6.1 Introduction

5.2.6.2 Magnetic Sector Mass Spectrometer

5.2.6.3 Electric Fields

5.2.6.4 Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometer

5.2.6.5 Future Usage of Mass Spectrometers

Chapter 6 Neutral Particles

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Neutron Detection

Part III Direct Sampling and Other Investigative Methods

Chapter 7 Direct Sampling Instruments

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Surface

7.2.1 Microscopy

7.2.2 Spectroscopy

7.2.2.1 Thermal Emissions

7.2.2.2 Solids

7.2.2.3 Gases

7.2.2.4 Raman Spectroscopy

7.2.2.5 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy and X-Ray Diffraction

7.2.2.6 Alpha Particle Spectrometry

7.2.2.7 Mössbauer Spectroscopy

7.2.3 Chemical and Biological Analyses

7.2.3.1 Introduction

7.2.3.2 Gas Chromatograph

7.2.3.3 Gas Chromatograph–Mass Spectrometer Instruments

7.2.3.4 Biological Investigations

7.2.3.5 Neutron-Based Instruments

7.2.3.6 Wet Chemistry

7.2.4 Physical Properties

7.2.4.1 Temperature and Thermal Conductivity or Inertia

7.2.4.2 Electricity and Magnetism

7.2.4.3 Density and Refractive Index

7.2.5 Ionising Radiation Levels

7.2.6 Sampling

7.2.6.1 Introduction

7.2.6.2 Passive Sampling

7.2.6.3 Active Sampling

7.2.7 Ground Truth

7.2.8 Retro-Reflectors

7.3 Sub-Surface

7.3.1 Radar

7.3.2 Seismometry

7.3.2.1 Introduction

7.3.2.2 Spacecraft Seismometry

7.4 Atmosphere

7.4.1 Spectroscopy

7.4.2 Nephelometry

7.4.3 Pressure

7.4.4 Temperature

7.4.5 Humidity

7.4.6 Wind

7.4.7 Acoustics

7.5 Interplanetary Medium

7.5.1 Large-Scale Magnetic Fields

7.5.1.1 Search Coil Magnetometer

7.5.1.2 Flux Gate Magnetometer

7.5.1.3 Helium Magnetometer

7.5.2 Electric Fields

7.5.2.1 Langmuir Wave Instruments

7.5.2.2 Langmuir Probe Instruments

7.5.2.3 Electron Drift

7.5.3 Interplanetary Dust

Chapter 8 Accelerations

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Spacecraft-Borne Accelerometers

8.3 Gravity Studies