Foundations of Evolutionary Psychology 2nd Edition by Charles Crawford,Dennis Krebs 0805859578 9780805859577

1 Evolutionary Psychology The Historical Context

Evolutionary Thinking before Darwin

Darwin’s Insights

The Early Enthusiasts (Darwin’s Influence on Nonpsychologists)

Why did the ideas of the early enthusiasts fade?

Eugenics, Behaviorism, and Environmentalism

Rediscovering Darwin (The Biologists)

Heralds of Modern Evolutionary Thinking

Evolutionary Psychology

Current Issues in Evolutionary Psychology

Why the Wariness?

Summary

References

Part I Biological Foundations of Evolutionary Psychology

2 Evolutionary Questions for Evolutionary Psychologists

What Theory Provides the Foundation for Evolutionary Psychology?

Is Evolutionary Psychology Fundamentally Different from Sociobiology?

Is Natural Selection Theory a Circular Argument?

Is Sexual Selection Fundamentally Different from Natural Selection?

What is More Important to the History of a Species: Selection for Individual Reproductive Success or Selection for Group Survival?

What is the Unit of Selection: The Gene or the Individual?

Does Natural Selection Lead to Evolutionary Progress?

Is Everything an Adaptation?

Are Adaptationists Just-So Story Tellers?

Is it True, However, That Adaptationists Greatly Overestimate the Prevalence of Adaptation?

But are Adaptations Often Less than Optimal Because of the Constraints Placed on Them by the Evolutionary Process?

In the Case of Humans, Should Sociocultural Explanations for Our Behavior Take Precedence Over Evolutionary Ones?

Given that We Know So Little about the Ancestral Environment of Humans, How Can We Know Anything about the Selection Pressures Operating on Our Ancestors?

Summary

References

3 Life History Theory and Human Development

Introduction

The Comparative Evidence: Humans Among Primates

How to Construct an Evolutionary Explanation of a Life History

The Historical Explanations of Macroevolution

The Selection Explanations of Microevolution

The Mechanistic Explanations of Development and Physiology

Evolutionary Explanations of the Major Life History Traits

Critical Early Events Involving Gametes and Embryos

Selection Arenas, Oocytic Atresia, and Menopause

Sperm Selection

Spontaneous Abortion

Conflicts over Intrauterine Growth

Size at Birth

Growth and Maturation

Human Growth Patterns

Optimal Age and Size at Maturity

The Patterning of Reproductive Investment After Puberty

Interbirth Intervals

Single Versus Multiple Births

Sex Allocation

Bet-Hedging and Risk Minimization

Infanticide

Menopause

Life Span and Aging

Development and Physiology

Developmental Determinants of Adult Survival and Reproduction

Sex Hormones: Trade-offs, Morphology, and Buffering

Discussion

References

4 Sex and Sexual Selection

The Evolution of Sex and Its Implications

Definition of Sex

Current Theories of Evolution of Sex

How Many Sexes

Characteristics of Males and Females

Gamete Size and Numbers

Parental Investment and Potential Rates of Reproduction

Sex Differences in Rate of Mutation and Their Consequences

Sex-Specific Transmission of Organelles

Sexual Selection

Sexual Signals and their Reliability

Benefits of Mate Choice

Sexual Conflict

Sperm Competition

Differential Parental Investment

Sex Ratio and Sex Ratio Manipulation

Humans as a Sexually Selected Species

Summary

References

5 Kinship and Social Behavior

Social Behaviors

Language

Kin Selection, Cooperation, and Altruism

Kin Selection More Generally

What is relatedness?

How does kin selection work?

Kin Discrimination

Limited Dispersal

Measuring Relatedness

Testing Kin Selection Theory: Quantitative Hamilton’s Rules

Testing Kin Selection Theory: Comparative Statics

Kin Selection and Conflict between Individuals

Parent-Offspring Conflict

Sibling Conflict

Kin Selection and Genomic Imprinting

Competition and Cooperation

Old Group Selection

New Group Selection

Kin Selection, Cooperation and Altruism—Revisited

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Part II Development: The Bridge from Evolutionary Theory to Evolutionary Psychology

6 Sociogenomics for the Cognitive Adaptationist

Background

Mendelian Fairness

Gene frequency and evolutionary change

From DNA to Behavior

Genes as Strategists

Theoretical Genetics

The modern synthesis

Phenotypic plasticity20

Population genetics and game theory

Sociogenomics I Genomic imprinting

Neurogenetics and the Candidate Gene Approach

Sociogenomics II Indirect genetic effects

Sociogenomics III Maternal epigenetics

Development

Developmental constraints

Evolutionary Psychology: Domains, Levels and Challenges22

Is evolutionary psychology necessarily a form of nativism?

Are evolutionary psychologists only interested in universals?

Is the gene the sole unit of selection?

Gene to Organism Domain-Specificity?

Acknowledgments

References

7 Selfish Genes, Developmental Systems, and the Evolution of Development

Relationships Between Evolutionary and Developmental Theory in the 19th and Early 20th Centuries

The Modern Synthesis, the Rise of “Selfish Genes,” and Evolutionary Views of Human Development Emerging in the Late 20th Century

Theme 1

Theme 2

Theme 3

The Introduction of Developmental Systems Theory

The Search for a General Theory of the Relationship Between Evolution and Development

A General Theory of the Evolution of Development

Summary and Concluding Remarks

Author Note

Acknowledgments

References

Part III Evolved Mental Mechanisms: The Essence of Evolutionary Psychology

8 Biological Adaptations and Human Behavior

Fundamental Concepts

Traits and Effects

Adaptations and Functions

Effects, Selection, and Evolution

The Concepts of Adaptation and Function

An Alternative Concept of Function

By-Products

Exaptation and Fortuitous Effects

The Concept of Exaptation

Secondary Adaptation

Is the Concept of Exaptation Useful?

Constr Aints

The Costs of Traits

Genetic and Developmental Constraints

Adaptationist Methodology

How to Identify Adaptation

Special Design

Arguments of Design

How Is “Good Design” Assessed?

The Nature of Psychological Adaptations

The Problem of Exapted Learning Mechanisms

The Role of Comparative and Phylogenetic Analyses for Establishing Adaptation

Some Outstanding Issues Pertaining to Adaptation

Issue 1 The Problem of Atomizing Traits

Issue 2 Is Current Fitness Relevant After All?

Issue 3 Reverse Engineering Versus Reverse Tinkering

Issue 4 Organisms Create Environments

Summary

References

9 Evolved Cognitive Mechanisms and Human Behavior

The Explanatory Role of Mechanisms in Evolutionary Psychology

The Form-Function Fit, Design Features, and Domain Specificity

The Empirical Study of Specialized Cognitive Mechanisms

Face Recognition

Mechanisms for Inferring the Intentions of Others

Kin Recognition and Mechanisms Regulating Interactions with Kin

The Social Exchange System

Other Mechanisms: Learning, Regulatory, and Interface Mechanisms

General Principles

Explaining the Seamless Whole of Behavior

References

10 Adaptations, Environments, and Behavior Then and Now

Innate Genetic Specialized Genetic Organization

Adaptations and their Functioning

Scorpionfly Mating Illustrates Concurrently Contingent Tactics

The Bluegill Sunfish

Fever

Incest Avoidance

Characteristics of Adaptations

Adaptations and Behavior

Decision Makers

Cost-Benefit Structure

The Unit of Selection

Adaptation Defined

The Incest Avoidance Adaptation: Then and Now

Reproductive Success

The Genetics of Adaptations

Sex Differences in Life History

Genetic Variation and Natural Selection

Adaptation Functioning: Then and Now

Research Methodologies

Conclusion

References

11 Evolutionary Psychology Research Methods

Evolutionary Psychology Research Methods

Evolutionary Psychology and Identifying Human Psychological Adaptations

Evolutionary Research Methods for Identifying Psychological Adaptation

Formally Evaluating Evidence of Psychological Adaptation

Pregnancy Sickness as a Psychological Adaptation

Research Methods and Adaptations Across Psychological Science

References

Part IV The Evolutionary Psychology of Sex Differences

12 Physical Attractiveness Signals of Phenotypic Quality and Beyond

The Evolution of Attractiveness: Theoretical Considerations

Attractiveness and Beauty Outcomes of Selection

Sexual Selection and Signaling Theory

Are Honest Signaling Systems of Quality Ubiquitous?

Genetic Versus Direct Benefits

Multiple Signals

Mutual Mate Choice

Intrinsic Good Genes and Compatible Genes

Nonsignaling Systems

The Attractiveness of Sexually Dimorphic Features

Facial Sexual Dimorphism

The Attractiveness of Female Facial Femininity

Attractiveness in Relation to Male Facial Masculinity

Sexually Dimorphic Body Features

Female Body Form

Male Physique

The 2D:4D

Other Preferred Facial Traits: Averageness and Symmetry

Facial Averageness

Facial Symmetry

Preferences for Mhc: Compatibility and Heterozygosity

MHC Compatibility

MHC Heterozygosity

The Conditional Nature of Preferences

Conclusion

References

13 Two Human Natures How Men and Women Evolved Different Psychologies

Introduction

Natural Selection and Sexual Selection

The Evolution of Sex Roles

Long-Term and Short-Term Matings

Psychological Sex Differences

Readiness to Mate and Number of Sexual Partners Desired

Economic parental investment

Risk-Taking and Aggression in Intrasexual Competition

The Dual Action of Natural and Sexual Selection on Traits

Wood and Eagly’s (2002) Biosocial Theory

Conclusion

References

14 Heroes and Hos Reflections of Male and Female Sexual Natures

Unobtrusive Measures

The World of Pornography for Men

The Ho

The Romance Novel

The Romance Hero

Why the Big Difference Between Erotica for Men and Women?

Final Thoughts

References

Part V The Evolutionary Psychology of Prosocial Behavior

15 How Selfish by Nature?

The Selfishness of Evolved Dispositions

Biological Selfishness

Psychological Selfishness

Possible Relations Among Genetic, Biological, and Psychological for Ms of Selfishness and Unselfishness

Conclusions

The Evolution of Biologically Selfish and Unselfish Dispositions

The Selection of Dispositions to Behave in Biologically Selfish Ways

The Selection of Dispositions to Behave in Biologically Cooperative Ways

The Selection of Dispositions to Behave in Biologically Altruistic Ways

The Evolution of Psychologically Selfish and Unselfish Dispositions

The Selection of Psychologically Selfish Dispositions

Adaptive Limitations of Short-Sighted Selfishness

The Selection of Psychologically Cooperative Dispositions

Seeking to Maximize Mutual Benefits

Seeking to Reciprocate

Seeking to Foster Fair Outcomes

The Selection of Psychologically Altruistic Dispositions

Empathically Induced Altruistic Motives

Conclusion

References

16 Gene-Culture Coevolution and the Emergence of Altruistic Behavior in Humans

Introduction

Experimental Game Theory

Char Acter Virtues and Human Nature

Altruistic Punishment: The Ultimatum Game

The Public Goods Game

Altruistic Third-Party Punishment

The Evolutionary Stability of Strong Reciprocity

Gene-Culture Coevolution

Is Strong Reciprocity and Adaptation?

Did Strong Reciprocity Evolve Through Group Selection or Individual Selection?

Psychological and Behavior al Aspects of Altruism: Prosocial Emotions and Strong Reciprocity

The Internalization of Nor Ms

Conclusion

References

17 Renaissance of the Individual Reciprocity, Positive Assortment, and the Puzzle of Human Cooperation

Darwin’s Puzzle

Kin Selection (and Genic Self-Favoritism in General)

Reciprocal Altruism

Indirect Reciprocity

Costly Signaling

The New Puzzle of Cooper Ation

First Disagreement: Do the Experimental Data Refute Individual-Level Adaptationist Theories of Human cooperation?

Second Disagreement: Could Selection Have Favored Individual-Level Adaptations for cooperation in Humans?

Group Selection Versus Parsimony

Back to Square One: An Individual-Level Adaptationist Explanation of Cooper Ation in Groups

The Fork in the Road

Proximate Causation

Replacing Binary Reciprocity with Continuous Reciprocity

Some Notes on Interpretation of the Model Results

Rethinking Positive Assortment

Where Does the Evidence Point? Support for the Individual-Level Adaptationist View

Conditional cooperation in Public Good Games

Signaling Cooperativeness Initially and the Decay of Cooperativeness Over Repeated Rounds

Mutual Monitoring

Positive Assortment Via Partner Choice

Reputation

Conclusions

References

18 Cooperation and Conflict between Kith, Kin, and Strangers Game Theory by Domains

Modularity and Solutions to Recurring Social Problems

Recasting the Classic Prisoner’s Dilemma

How Domain-Specific Biases Might Alter Cooperative Trade-Offs

Alliance Formation

Cooperating With Kin

Dyadic Alliances With Nonkin

Status

Self-Protection and Groups

Mate Selection

Mate Retention

Parental Care

Discussion

Acknowledgments

References

19 On the Evolution of Moral Sentiments

The Mystery of Cooperation in One-Shot Social Dilemmas

A Simple Thought Experiment

Mimicry and a Signal’s Problematic First Step

Concluding Remarks

References

Part VI The Evolutionary Psychology of Antisocial Behavior and Psychopathology

20 Is the “Cinderella Effect” Controversial? A Case Study of Evolution-Minded Research and Critiques Thereof

The Evidence

Are Cinderella Effects By-Products of Other Risk Factors Associated With Stepparenthood?

Stepfathers or “Mothers’ Boyfriends”?

Stepparents or Stepfathers?

Mundane (Nonabusive) Discrimination Against Stepchildren

The Controversy

Could Cinderella Effects Be Artifacts of Biased Reporting?

Scholarship and Civility

References

21 Intergroup Prejudices and Intergroup Conflicts

An Evolutionary Perspective on Threats and Prejudices

The Nature of Group and Intergroup Relations During Ancestral Times

Other Primate Populations

Contemporary Human Hunter-Gatherer Populations

Adaptive Features of Intergroup Cognition and Emotion

Costs, Benefits, and Functional Flexibility

Implications for Contemporary Stereotypes, Prejudices, and Conflicts

Variation in the Acquisition and Activation of Fearful Intergroup Cognitions

Instigation and Persistence of Intergroup Conflict

Additional Threats, Additional Prejudices, Additional Implications

The Threat of Parasite Transmission

Threats to the Efficiency of Group Processes

Final Thoughts

References

22 The Evolution of Brain Mechanisms for Social Behavior

Empathizing

Developmental Dissociations

Sex Differences in Empathizing—a Clue to Its Evolutionary Origins?

Natural Selection of Good Empathy Among Females?

Systemizing

Sex Differences in Systemizing

What Is the Evidence for a Stronger Drive to Systemize in Males?

Fetal Testosterone as an Organizer of Brain Development and Sexual Dimorphism

The Cambridge Fetal Testosterone Project

Brain Types

Autism: Hyper-Systemizing Alongside Impaired Empathizing?

The Systemizing Mechanism

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

23 An Evolutionary Theory of Mind and Mental Illness: Genetic Conflict and the Mentalistic Continuum

Mentalistic and Mechanistic Cognition

Attention, Intention, and Central Coherence

The Evolutionary Genetics of Mentalism

Hyper-Mentalism and Psychosis

Mentalism and the Mother

Males and Mechanistic Mentality

The X Factor in Psychosis

Acknowledgment

References

24 Psychopathology and Mental Illness

Introduction

Basic Points

The Concept of Mental Disorder

Novel Environments and the Function of Emotions

The Evolutionary Origin of Symptoms

Sexual Selection and Psychiatric Disorders

The Epidemiology of Sexual Disorders

The Impact of Reproductive-Related Trauma

The Impact of Interpersonal Stressful Life Events

Life History Theory and Psychiatric Disorders

Limitations

Lax Adaptationism

Neglect of Behavior Analysis

Therapeutic Irrelevance

References

Part VII Exploring the Explanatory Power of Evolutionary Psychology

25 The Evolutionary Psychology of Religion

Introduction: Religion as an Evolutionary By-Product

The Supernatural Agent: Hair-Triggered Folk Psychology

Cultural Survival: Memory Experiments with Counterintuitive Beliefs

Metarepresenting Counterintuitive Worlds: A Theory of Mind Experiment

Existential Anxiety: An Experiment on What Motivates Religious Belief

Sacred Values in Decision Making and the Limits of Reason

Conclusion: Religion is Humankind’s Provisional Evolutionary Destiny