Ecological Census Techniques A Handbook 2nd Edition by William J Sutherland ISBN 0521844622 9780521844628

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ISBN 10: 0521844622
ISBN 13:  9780521844628
Author: William J Sutherland

 Ecological Census Techniques A Handbook 2nd Table of contents:

1 Planning a research programme
Introduction: reverse planning
What is the specific question?
What results are necessary to answer the questions?
What data are needed to complete these analyses?
What protocol is required to obtain these data?
Can the data be collected in the time available?
Using a calendar
Calendars with divisions
Gantt charts
Modifying the planning in response to time available
Creating data sheets
Types of data sheet
Start and encounter reality
Acknowledgements
2 Principles of sampling
Before one starts
Objectives
Know your organism
Censuses and samples
Know the reliability of your estimates
Precision and accuracy
Measuring precision
The balance of precision and cost
Optimisation of design
Sources of bias
What if your estimate is biased?
Performing the calculations
General
Precision
Simulations
Mathematical terminology
Keep thinking
Sampling – the basics
Defining sample units and the sampling frame
The need for replication
Ensuring that samples are representative
Representativeness is essential
Ensure the sampling frame is complete
Random sampling
Precision in locating samples
Deviations from random
Regular sampling
More samples in some places
The problem of inaccessible areas
Points on grids
Gaps between adjacent samples
Unavoidable bias
The shape and size of sampling units
Shape
Size: constant or variable?
What size is best?
Estimation of means and total population sizes
Means and confidence intervals
Total population size
How many units to sample
Unequal sample units
When distributions are not normal
The layout of samples
Cluster sampling
What is cluster sampling?
Considerations of cost and precision
How many clusters to sample
Multi-level sampling
What is multi-level sampling?
Optimal distribution of sampling
Estimates from two-level sampling
Stratified sampling
What is stratified sampling?
How to stratify
Estimation of overall mean and totals
Optimal allocation of sampling effort
Post-stratification
Strip transects within or across strata
Adaptive sampling
Why adaptive sampling is needed
What is adaptive sampling?
How to take an adaptive cluster sample
Analysis
Repeated counts at the same site
Why take repeated counts?
Improving precision
Studying changes in numbers
Mean or peak population
Comparing two or more study areas
Basics
Matters of design
Analysis
When areas differ in size
Modelling spatial variation in numbers
Stratification as modelling
Correlations with mapped variables
Using covariates
Spatial patterns: kriging
Surveillance and monitoring
The difference between surveillance and monitoring
Monitoring and adaptive management
What is adaptive management?
Science in the community
Surveillance and research
From research to action
Sampling design for surveillance
Use the same sample locations
Unplanned loss of sample sites
Rotational sampling
Monitoring the effects of changes in management
Describing long-term changes
Short-term variation and long-term trends
Unified analysis across sites and times
Data from a single site
Simple but inefficient methods for multiple sites
Generalised linear models
Generalised additive models
Route regression
Process models
Alerts and indicators
Why alert systems are needed
More on targets
Timescales
Built-in adjustments: filters
Statistical significance
Indicators
Planning and managing a monitoring programme
Planning
Reviewing
Changing methods
Maintaining consistency
Acknowledgements
References
3 General census methods
Introduction
Complete counts (1): general
Not as easy as it seems
Sampling the habitat
Attempted complete enumeration
Complete counts (2): plotless sampling
Sample counts (1): mark–recapture methods
Fundamentals of mark–recapture
The basic idea
Marking
Marking and resighting
Marking may be unnecessary
Open or closed populations?
Other assumptions
Further reading
The two-sample method
Multiple recaptures in closed populations
Various models
General goodness-of-fit tests for mark–recapture data
The pseudo-removal method
The Schnabel method
The Burnham and Overton method
Choosing among methods
Multiple recaptures in open populations
The general approach
The Jolly–Seber method
Assumptions and biases
Modified models
Using ancillary information
The robust model
What area does a trapping grid cover?
Sample counts (2): some other methods based on trapping
The removal method
The change-in-ratio method
Simultaneous marking and recapture: the method of Wileyto et al.
Continuous captures and recaptures: the Craig and du Feu method
Passive distance sampling
Sampling from the whole area
Sample counts (3): ‘mark–recapture’ without capture
Marking without capture
Individual recognition without capture
The double-observer method
The double-survey method
Subdivided point counts
Sample counts (4): N-mixture models
Sample counts (5): distance sampling
General
Field methods and principles
Analysis
The use of ancillary information
Line transects
General
Mobile animals, stationary observer
Point transects
Passive distance sampling
Trapping webs
Trapping line transects
Sample counts (6): interception methods
Point quadrats
Line intercepts (cover)
Line intercepts (counts)
Sample counts (7): migrating animals
Continuous migration
Stop-over sites
Population indices
The idea of an index
The ideal index
Examples of indices
Counts of a part of the population
Counts and density estimates as indices
The minimum number known to be alive
Cue counting
Comparing index values: take care!
Overcoming variation in the index ratio
The value of standardisation
The value of multiple, randomised observations
Allowing for variation
Correction factors
Regression techniques
When the index ratio varies with population density
Calibration
Ratio estimators for lines passing through the origin
Non-linear relationships
Extrapolation: be cautious!
Double sampling
Frequency of occurrence
Basics
Theory
Practice
Calibration
Managing the methodology
Unstandardised observations can be useful
Standardisation
Comparisons across habitats
Correction, in the absence of standardisation?
Sampling strategy and statistical analysis for frequency of occurrence
The size of samples
Distribution of sample locations
Statistical manipulation of frequencies
Subdivision of samples
Frequency in subsamples
Timed species counts
McKinnon lists
Estimating the true frequency of occurrence
Appendix: software packages for population estimation
Capture–recapture: closed populations
Capture–recapture: open populations
Ring-recovery models
Multi-state models
Observation-based methods
Acknowledgements
References
4 Plants
Introduction
Counts
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
DAFOR
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Quadrats
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Point quadrats
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Transects
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Mapping terrestrial vegetation
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Mapping aquatic vegetation
Methods
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Seed traps
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Sampling of seedbanks
Methods
Tetrazolium
Indigocarmine
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Phytoplankton
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Benthic algae
Methods
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Marking and mapping individuals
Method
Mapping
Marking
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
References
5 Invertebrates
Introduction
Direct searching and collecting
Trapping
Extraction from the substrate
Storing, killing and preserving invertebrates
Searching and direct observation (terrestrial and aerial)
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Pitfall traps
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Sweep netting
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Vacuum sampling
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Beating
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Fogging
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Malaise traps
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Window or interception traps
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Water traps
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Light traps
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Other aerial attractants and traps
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Terrestrial emergence traps
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Digging and taking soil cores
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Litter samples and desiccation funnels
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Searching and direct observation (aquatic)
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Pond netting
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Cylinder samplers
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Aquatic emergence traps
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Digging, taking benthic cores and using grabs
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Kick sampling
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
References
6 Fish
Introduction
Bankside counts
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Underwater observations
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Electric fishing
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Seine netting
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Trawling
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Lift, throw and push netting
Methods
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Hook and lining
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Gill netting
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Trapping
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Hydroacoustics
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Visual estimates of eggs
Methods
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Volumetric estimates of eggs
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Plankton nets for catching eggs
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Emergence traps for eggs
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
References
7 Amphibians
Introduction
Recognising individuals
Toe-clipping
Recognising skin patterns
Other methods
Detection probability
Drift fencing
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Scan searching
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Netting
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Trapping
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Transect and patch sampling
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Removal studies
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Call surveys
Using multiple methods
Recording other data
References
8 Reptiles
Introduction
Hand capturing
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Noosing
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Trapping
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Marking individuals
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Acknowledgements
References
9 Birds
Introduction
Before you start counting
Choice of census method
Where to look for further information
Listing methods
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Timed species counts
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Territory mapping
Method
Analysis of maps
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Transects
Line transects
Method
Line transects at sea
Line transects from the air
Advantages and disadvantages of line transects
Biases
Point counts or point transects
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Correcting for differences in detection probabilities
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Capture techniques
Catch per unit effort
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Capture–mark–recapture
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Counting nests in colonies
Method
Cliffs
Burrows
Colonies of ground-nesting species
Tree colonies
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Counting roosts
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Counting flocks
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Counting migrants
Method
Diurnal migrants
Nocturnal migrant songbirds
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Indirect methods of censusing
Dropping counts
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Footprints and tracking strips
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Response to playback
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Vocal individuality
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
References
10 Mammals
Introduction
Total counts
Method
Biases
Nesting or resting structures
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Bat roosts and nurseries
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Line transects
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Aerial surveys
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Individual recognition
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Counting calls
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Trapping
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Counting dung
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Feeding signs for herbivores
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Counting footprints and runways
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Hair tubes and hair catchers
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Counting seal colonies
Method
Advantages and disadvantages
Biases
Conclusions
References
11 Environmental variables
Introduction
Why measure environmental variables?
How do I know which variables to measure?
What measurement technique can I use?
Wind and water flow
Wind
Water flow
Other kinds of water movement
Rainfall
Temperature
Humidity
pH
Indicator paper
Electronic determination
Duration of sunshine
Slope angles and height above shore
Light
Photon irradiance
Energy flux
Photometers
Aquatic light
Water turbidity
Conductivity
Salinity
Conductivity meters
Salinometers
Specific gravity
Hand-held salinity meters
Preamble to water chemistry
Safety
Glassware
Making up reagents
Chemical abbreviations
Dissolved oxygen
Winkler titration
Oxygen electrodes
Nitrogenous compounds
Nitrate
Ammonium ions
Phosphorus compounds
Soluble reactive phosphorus
Water-testing kits
Soil and sediment characteristics
Soil profiles
Soil surface hardness, or ‘penetrability’
Sediment shear strength
Soil texture
Particle-size measurements in aquatic sediments
Soil moisture
Soil organic content
Redox potential
Oxygen in soils and sediments
Acknowledgements

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