Collecting Managing and Assessing Data Using Sample Surveys 1st Edition by Peter Stopher ISBN 9781139209434 1139209434

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ISBN 10: 1139209434
ISBN 13: 9781139209434
Author: Peter Stopher

Collecting Managing and Assessing Data Using Sample Surveys 1st Edition Table of contents:

1 Introduction

1.1 The purpose of this book

1.2 Scope of the book

1.3 Survey statistics

2 Basic statistics and probability

2.1 Some definitions in statistics

2.1.1 Censuses and surveys

2.2 Describing data

2.2.1 Types of scales

Nominal scales

Ordinal scales

Interval scales

Ratio scales

Measurement scales

2.2.2 Data presentation: graphics

2.2.3 Data presentation: non-graphical

Measures of magnitude

Frequencies and proportions

Central measures of data

Measures of dispersion

The normal distribution

Some useful properties of variances and standard deviations

Proportions or probabilities

Data transformations

Covariance and correlation

Coefficient of variation

Other measures of variability

Alternatives to Sturges’ rule

3 Basic issues in surveys

3.1 Need for survey methods

3.1.1 A definition of sampling methodology

3.2 Surveys and censuses

3.2.1 Costs

3.2.2 Time

3.3 Representativeness

3.3.1 Randomness

3.3.2 Probability sampling

Sources of random numbers

3.4 Errors and bias

3.4.1 Sample design and sampling error

3.4.2 Bias

3.4.3 Avoiding bias

3.5 Some important definitions

4 Ethics of surveys of human populations

4.1 Why ethics?

4.2 Codes of ethics or practice

4.3 Potential threats to confidentiality

4.3.1 Retaining detail and confidentiality

4.4 Informed consent

4.5 Conclusions

5 Designing a survey

5.1 Components of survey design

5.2 Defining the survey purpose

5.2.1 Components of survey purpose

Data needs

Comparability or innovation

Defining data needs

Data needs in human subject surveys

Survey timing

Geographic bounds for the survey

5.3 Trade-offs in survey design

6 Methods for conducting surveys of human populations

6.1 Overview

6.2 Face-to-face interviews

6.3 Postal surveys

6.4 Telephone surveys

6.5 Internet surveys

6.6 Compound survey methods

6.6.1 Pre-recruitment contact

6.6.2 Recruitment

Random digit dialling

6.6.3 Survey delivery

6.6.4 Data collection

6.6.5 An example

6.7 Mixed-mode surveys

6.7.1 Increasing response and reducing bias

6.8 Observational surveys

7 Focus groups

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Definition of a focus group

7.2.1 The size and number of focus groups

7.2.2 How a focus group functions

7.2.3 Analysing the focus group discussions

7.2.4 Some disadvantages of focus groups

7.3 Using focus groups to design a survey

7.4 Using focus groups to evaluate a survey

7.5 Summary

8 Design of survey instruments

8.1 Scope of this chapter

8.2 Question type

8.2.1 Classification and behaviour questions

Mitigating threatening questions

8.2.2 Memory or recall error

8.3 Question format

8.3.1 Open questions

8.3.2 Field-coded questions

8.3.3 Closed questions

8.4 Physical layout of the survey instrument

8.4.1 Introduction

8.4.2 Question ordering

Opening questions

Body of the survey

The end of the questionnaire

8.4.3 Some general issues on question layout

Overall format

Appearance of the survey

Front cover

Spatial layout

Choice of typeface

Use of colour and graphics

Question numbering

Page breaks

Repeated questions

Instructions

Show cards

Time of the interview

Precoding

End of the survey

Some final comments on questionnaire layout

9 Design of questions and question wording

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Issues in writing questions

9.2.1 Requiring an answer

9.2.2 Ready answers

9.2.3 Accurate recall and reporting

9.2.4 Revealing the data

9.2.5 Motivation to answer

9.2.6 Influences on response categories

9.2.7 Use of categories and other responses

Ordered and unordered categories

9.3 Principles for writing questions

9.3.1 Use simple language

9.3.2 Number of words

9.3.3 Avoid using vague words

9.3.4 Avoid using ‘Tick all that apply’ formats

9.3.5 Develop response categories that are mutually exclusive and exhaustive

9.3.6 Make sure that questions are technically correct

9.3.7 Do not ask respondents to say ‘Yes’ in order to say ‘No’

9.3.8 Avoid double-barrelled questions

9.4 Conclusion

10 Special issues for qualitative and preference surveys

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Designing qualitative questions

10.2.1 Scaling questions

10.3 Stated response questions

10.3.1 The hypothetical situation

10.3.2 Determining attribute levels

10.3.3 Number of choice alternatives or scenarios

10.3.4 Other issues of concern

Data inconsistency

Lexicographic responses

Random responses

10.4 Some concluding comments on stated response survey design

11 Design of data collection procedures

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Contacting respondents

11.2.1 Pre-notification contacts

11.2.2 Number and type of contacts

Nature of reminder contacts

Postal surveys

Postal surveys with telephone recruitment

Telephone interviews

Face-to-face interviews

Internet surveys

11.3 Who should respond to the survey?

11.3.1 Targeted person

11.3.2 Full household surveys

Proxy reporting

11.4 Defining a complete response

11.4.1 Completeness of the data items

11.4.2 Completeness of aggregate sampling units

11.5 Sample replacement

11.5.1 When to replace a sample unit

11.5.2 How to replace a sample

11.6 Incentives

11.6.1 Recommendations on incentives

11.7 Respondent burden

11.7.1 Past experience

11.7.2 Appropriate moment

11.7.3 Perceived relevance

11.7.4 Difficulty

Physical difficulty

Intellectual difficulty

Emotional difficulty

Reducing difficulty

11.7.5 External factors

Attitudes and opinions of others

The ‘feel good’ effect

Appropriateness of the medium

11.7.6 Mitigating respondent burden

11.8 Concluding comments

12 Pilot surveys and pretests

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Definitions

12.3 Selecting respondents for pretests and pilot surveys

12.3.1 Selecting respondents

12.3.2 Sample size

Pilot surveys

Pretests

12.4 Costs and time requirements of pretests and pilot surveys

12.5 Concluding comments

13 Sample design and sampling

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Sampling frames

13.3 Random sampling procedures

13.3.1 Initial considerations

13.3.2 The normal law of error

13.4 Random sampling methods

13.4.1 Simple random sampling

Drawing the sample

Estimating population statistics and sampling errors

Example

Sampling from a finite population

Sampling error of ratios and proportions

Defining the sample size

Examples

13.4.2 Stratified sampling

Types of stratified samples

Study domains and strata

Weighted means and variances

Stratified sampling with a uniform sampling fraction

Drawing the sample

Estimating population statistics and sampling errors

Pre- and post-stratification

Example

Equal allocation

Summary of proportionate sampling

Stratified sampling with variable sampling fraction

Drawing the sample

Estimating population statistics and sampling errors

Non-coincident study domains and strata

Optimum allocation and economic design

Example

Survey costs differing by stratum

Example

Practical issues in drawing disproportionate samples

Concluding comments on disproportionate sampling

13.4.3 Multistage sampling

Drawing a multistage sample

Requirements for multistage sampling

Estimating population values and sampling statistics

Example

Concluding comments on multistage sampling

13.5 Quasi-random sampling methods

13.5.1 Cluster sampling

Equal clusters: population values and standard errors

Example

The effects of clustering

Unequal clusters: population values and standard errors

Random selection of unequal clusters

Example

Stratified sampling of unequal clusters

Paired selection of unequal-sized clusters

13.5.2 Systematic sampling

Population values and standard errors in a systematic sample

Simple random model

Stratified random model

Paired selection model

Successive difference model

Example

13.5.3 Choice-based sampling

13.6 Non-random sampling methods

13.6.1 Quota sampling

13.6.2 Intentional, judgemental, or expert samples

13.6.3 Haphazard samples

13.6.4 Convenience samples

13.7 Summary

14 Repetitive surveys

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Non-overlapping samples

14.3 Incomplete overlap

14.4 Subsampling on the second and subsequent occasions

14.5 Complete overlap: a panel

14.6 Practical issues in designing and conducting panel surveys

14.6.1 Attrition

Replacement of panel members lost by attrition

Reducing losses due to attrition

14.6.2 Contamination

14.6.3 Conditioning

14.7 Advantages and disadvantages of panels

14.8 Methods for administering practical panel surveys

14.9 Continuous surveys

15 Survey economics

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Cost elements in survey design

15.3 Trade-offs in survey design

15.3.1 Postal surveys

15.3.2 Telephone recruitment with a postal survey with or without telephone retrieval

15.3.3 Face-to-face interview

15.3.4 More on potential trade-offs

15.4 Concluding comments

16 Survey implementation

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Interviewer selection and training

16.2.1 Interviewer selection

16.2.2 Interviewer training

16.2.3 Interviewer monitoring

16.3 Record keeping

16.4 Survey supervision

16.5 Survey publicity

16.5.1 Frequently asked questions, fact sheet, or brochure

16.6 Storage of survey forms

16.6.1 Identification numbers

16.7 Issues for surveys using posted materials

16.8 Issues for surveys using telephone contact

16.8.1 Caller ID

16.8.2 Answering machines

16.8.3 Repeated requests for callback

16.9 Data on incomplete responses

16.10 Checking survey responses

16.11 Times to avoid data collection

16.12 Summary comments on survey implementation

17 Web-based surveys

17.1 Introduction

17.2 The internet as an optional response mechanism

17.3 Some design issues for Web surveys

17.3.1 Differences between paper and internet surveys

17.3.2 Question and response

17.3.3 Ability to fill in the Web survey in multiple sittings

17.3.4 Progress tracking

17.3.5 Pre-filled responses

17.3.6 Confidentiality in Web-based surveys

17.3.7 Pictures, maps, etc. on Web surveys

Animation in survey pictures and maps

17.3.8 Browser software

User interface design

Creating mock-ups

Page loading time

17.4 Some design principles for Web surveys

17.5 Concluding comments

18 Coding and data entry

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Coding

18.2.1 Coding of missing values

18.2.2 Use of zeros and blanks in coding

18.2.3 Coding consistency

Binary variables

Numeric variables

18.2.4 Coding complex variables

18.2.5 Geocoding

Requesting address details for other places than home

Pre-coding of buildings

Interactive gazetteers

Other forms of geocoding assistance

Locating by mapping software

18.2.6 Methods for creating codes

18.3 Data entry

18.4 Data repair

19 Data expansion and weighting

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Data expansion

19.2.1 Simple random sampling

19.2.2 Stratified sampling

19.2.3 Multistage sampling

19.2.4 Cluster samples

19.2.5 Other sampling methods

19.3 Data weighting

19.3.1 Weighting with unknown population totals

An example

A second example

19.3.2 Weighting with known populations

An example

19.4 Summary

20 Nonresponse

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Unit nonresponse

20.2.1 Calculating response rates

Classifying responses to a survey

Calculating response rates

20.2.2 Reducing nonresponse and increasing response rates

Design issues affecting nonresponse

Survey publicity

Use of incentives

Use of reminders and repeat contacts

Personalisation

Summary

20.2.3 Nonresponse surveys

20.3 Item nonresponse

20.3.1 Data repair

Flagging repaired variables

Inference

Imputation

Historical imputation

Average imputation

Ratio imputation

Regression imputation

Cold-deck imputation

Hot-deck imputation

Expectation maximisation

Multiple imputation

Imputation using neural networks

Summary of imputation methods

20.3.2 A final note on item nonresponse

Strategies to obtain age and income

Age

Income

21 Measuring data quality

21.1 Introduction

21.2 General measures of data quality

21.2.1 Missing value statistic

21.2.2 Data cleaning statistic

21.2.3 Coverage error

21.2.4 Sample bias

21.3 Specific measures of data quality

21.3.1 Non-mobility rates

21.3.2 Trip rates and activity rates

21.3.3 Proxy reporting

21.4 Validation surveys

21.4.1 Follow-up questions

21.4.2 Independent measurement

21.5 Adherence to quality measures and guidance

22 Future directions in survey procedures

22.1 Dangers of forecasting new directions

22.2 Some current issues

22.2.1 Reliance on telephones

Threats to the use of telephone surveys

Conclusions on reliance on telephones

22.2.2 Language and literacy

Language

Literacy

22.2.3 Mixed-mode surveys

22.2.4 Use of administrative data

22.2.5 Proxy reporting

22.3 Some possible future directions

22.3.1 A GPS survey as a potential substitute for a household travel survey

The effect of multiple observations of each respondent on sample size

23 Documenting and archiving

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Documentation or the creation of metadata

23.2.1 Descriptive metadata

23.2.2 Preservation metadata

23.2.3 Geospatial metadata

23.3 Archiving of data

References

Index

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