Clinical Applications of Magnetic Nanoparticles 1st Edition by Nguyen TK Thanh ISBN 1351685430 9781351685436

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ISBN 10: 1351685430 
ISBN 13: 9781351685436
Author: Nguyen TK Thanh

Clinical Applications of Magnetic Nanoparticles 1st Table of contents:

Section I Fabrication, Characterisation of MNPs
Chapter 1 Controlling the Size and Shape of Uniform Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications
1.1 State of the Art: Size, Shape Control and Self-Assembly Processes
1.2 Progress on synthesis routes
1.2.1 Aqueous Synthesis
1.2.1.1 Co-Precipitation of Iron (II) and (III) Salts
1.2.1.2 Partial Reduction of Iron (III) Salts
1.2.1.3 Partial Oxidation of Iron (II) Salts
1.2.1.4 Reduction of Antiferromagnetic Precursor
1.2.1.5 Biomineralization
1.2.2 Organic Synthesis by Thermal Decomposition of an Organic Precursor
1.2.3 Polyol Synthesis
1.2.4 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis
1.2.5 Electrochemical Synthesis
1.2.6 Other Synthetic Routes
1.3 Particles’ Coating and Polymer Encapsulation
1.4 Final Remarks
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 2 Magnetic NanochainsProperties, Syntheses and Prospects
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Properties and Interactions of Magnetic NPs
2.2.1 Magnetic NPs: Magnetic Properties at the Nanometric Scale
2.2.2 Isolated Magnetic NPs
2.2.3 Interactions between Particles
2.2.4 Dipolar Interactions: Consequences for Orientational Order and Spontaneous Chain Formation
2.2.5 Experimental Evidence of Dipolar Behavior
2.3 Synthetic Strategies
2.3.1 Magnetotactic Bacteria
2.3.2 Self-Assembly
2.3.3 Self-Assembly Induced by External Forces or Constraints
2.3.3.1 Application of External Magnetic Field
2.3.3.2 Chemical Synthesis
2.3.3.3 Magnetic Electrospinning
2.3.3.4 Microfluidics
2.4 Applications
2.4.1 Individual Magnetic NPs
2.4.2 1-D Assemblies – Applications in Life Sciences
2.4.2.1 Biomarkers and MRI Contrast Agents
2.4.2.2 Therapy: Delivery of Medicines and Hyperthermia
2.4.2.3 Antibacterial Properties
2.4.2.4 Regenerative Medicine
2.5 Conclusions
2.6 Future Directions
References
Chapter 3 Carbon-Coated Magnetic Metal Nanoparticles for Clinical Applications
3.1 Synthesis of Carbon- Coated Nanomagnets
3.2 Physical Properties: How Metal Nanomagnets are Different from Iron Oxides
3.3 Initial Chemical Derivatization of the Carbon Surface
3.4 Application of Specific Surface Functionalizations
3.5 Carbon-Coated Metal Nanomagnets for Diagnostics
3.6 The Future of Carbon-Coated Metal Nanomagnets in Blood Purification
3.7 Conclusion and Future Outlook
References
Chapter 4 Bioinspired Magnetic Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications
4.1 MNPs in Living Organisms
4.1.1 MNPs in Magnetotactic Bacteria
4.1.2 MNPs in Animal
4.1.3 Ferritins
4.2 Bioinspired Synthesis of MNPs
4.2.1 Synthesis of MNPs Inspired by Biomineralization of Ferritin
4.2.2 Synthesis of MNPs Inspired by Magnetotactic Bacteria
4.3 Bioinspired MNPs for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy
4.3.1 Peroxidase Activity of M-HFN for In Vitro Staining of Tumour Cells
4.3.2 In Vivo Targeting and Imaging of Microscopic Tumours
4.3.3 Hyperthermia
4.4 Future Directions
4.4.1 Exploring Biomineralization for Synthesis of High-Quality MNP
4.4.2 Genetic Engineering for Functionalization of Bioinspired MNP for Targeted Diagnosis and Therapy
Acknowledgements
References
Section II Biofunctionalisation of MNPs
Chapter 5 Main Challenges about Surface Biofunctionalization for the In Vivo Targeting of Magnetic Nanoparticles
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Basic Principles of Surface Bioconjugation of MNPs
5.2.1 Different Surface Types of MNPs as a Function of the Synthetic Methods
5.2.2 Subsequent Relevant Prefunctionalization Steps
5.2.2.1 Different Types of Anchoring Groups
5.2.2.1.1 Organofunctional Silane Coupling Agents
5.2.2.1.2 Carboxylates and Catechol Derivatives
5.2.2.1.3 Phosphorous Derivatives
5.2.2.2 Polymers
5.2.2.2.1 Hydrophobic Effects
5.2.2.2.2 Amphiphilic Polymers
5.2.2.3 Inorganic Coating
5.2.3 Common Synthetic Strategies for Bioconjugation
5.3 Nano–Bio Interface
5.3.1 Specification Analysis for In Vivo Applications of Bioconjugated MNPs
5.3.2 Shielding Approaches
5.4 Current Challenges in MNP Bioconjugation for the In Vivo Targeting
5.4.1 Categories of Targeting Ligands
5.4.1.1 Nucleic-Acid-Based Ligands
5.4.1.2 Peptides
5.4.1.3 Proteins
5.4.1.4 Small Molecules
5.4.2 Main Critical Parameters Involved in Active Targeting Approaches
5.4.2.1 Effect of the Bioconjugation on the Physicochemical Parameters (Size, Surface Charge and HLB) of the NP Surface
5.4.2.3 Ligand Orientation
5.4.2.4 Effect of the Multivalence on the Affinity/Avidity and Specificity
5.4.3 Preassessment of the Targeting Efficiency
5.5 Conclusion and Future Outlook
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 6 Experimental Considerations for Scalable Magnetic Nanoparticle Synthesis and Surface Functionalization for Clinical Applications
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Scale Up Of NP Syntheses
6.2.1 Batch Techniques
6.2.2 Continuous Techniques
6.2.2.1 Current Limitations of Continuous Techniques
6.3 Stabilization and Functionalization of MNPs
6.3.1 Stabilization of MNPs
6.3.2 Biological Functionalization
6.3.2.1 Impact of Functionalization on MNPs and Cell–NP Interactions
6.3.3 Methods of Characterization for Particles and Surface Functionalization
6.3.3.1 Particle Size and Hydrodynamic Radius Measurements
6.3.3.2 Chemical Measurements
6.3.3.3 Continuous Characterization Techniques
6.4 Conclusions and Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 7 Magnetic Polymersomes for MRI and Theranostic Applications
7.1 Polymersomes for Biomedical Applications
7.1.1 General Introduction to Polymersomes
7.1.2 Polymersomes Preparation Techniques
7.1.3 Polymersomes in Biomedical Research
7.1.4 Polymersomes vs. Liposomes
7.2 Magnetopolymersomes
7.2.1 Approaches to Encapsulate Iron Oxide Nanoparticles in Polymersomes
7.2.2 Characterization of Magnetopolymersomes
7.2.2.1 Scattering Methods
7.2.2.2 Microscopy Techniques
7.2.3 Magnetopolymersomes as Mri Contrast Agents
7.2.3.1 Introduction to MRI
7.2.3.1.1 Generalities
7.2.3.1.2 NMR and Relaxation Phenomenon
7.2.3.1.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
7.2.3.1.4 Contrast Agents in MRI
7.2.3.2 Use of Magnetopolymersomes in MRI
7.2.4 Magnetopolymersomes as Nanotheranostic Systems
7.3 Conclusion and Outlook
Abbreviations
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 8 Ultrasmall Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Stabilized with Multidentate Polymers for Applications in MRI
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Principles of MRI
8.2.1 Concepts of T 1 and T 2
8.2.2 From Spin Relaxation to MRI Signal
8.3 Structure and Magnetic Properties of Ultrasmall IONPs
8.4 Relaxometric Properties of Ultra-Small IONPs
8.4.1 Introduction to the Theory of Relaxivity and Its Practical Aspects
8.4.2 Paramagnetic Contribution to Relaxivity
8.4.3 Main Parameters Affecting the Relaxivity of Contrast Agents
8.4.4 OS Relaxation and the Case of Superparamagnetic Nanoparticles
8.4.5 Superparamagnetic Nanoparticles and the Measurement of Relaxivity by Nuclear Magnetic Relaxation Dispersion
8.5 MDBC Stabilization Strategy: New Perspectives in the Development of Aqueous Colloidal IONPs
8.5.1 Ultrasmall IONPs for T 1-Weighted MRI
8.5.2 Molecular Coatings and Ligands Developed for Individualised USPIOs
8.5.3 Multidentate Polymers for High-Stability USPIO Coatings
8.6 Conclusion and Perspectives
References
Chapter 9 Encapsulation and Release of Drugs from Magnetic Silica Nanocomposites
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Encapsulation of Drugs in Nonporous Magnetic Silica by In Situ Sol–Gel Process
9.2.1 Drug Sequestration/Coupling: Limited Release in Physiological Conditions
9.2.2 Nonporous Magnetic Silica Composites with a Drug Release Actuated by Magnetothermal Effects
9.3 Drug Loading in Magnetic Core–Mesoporous Silica Shell Nanoparticles
9.3.1 Design of Magnetic Core Mesoporous Silica Shell Nanoparticles
9.3.1.1 Conventional Magnetic Core–Mesoporous Silica Shell Nanoparticles
9.3.1.2 Iron Oxide Nanocluster Core @Mesoporous Silica
9.3.2 Drug Loading in Bare Mesoporous Silica Shell: Issue with Colloidal Stability
9.3.3 Improving The Colloidal Stability by Polymer Grafting
9.4 Influence of Chemical Surface Modification on Drug Loading and Release
9.4.1 Tailoring the Drug Loading/Release by Electrostatic Attractions
9.4.2 Tailoring the Drug Loading/Release by –p Stacking Interactions
9.4.3 Tailoring Drug Loading/Release by Tuning H-Bond Interactions
9.5 Gatekeeping Strategies for Stimuli Responsive Drug Release
9.5.1 Magnetothermal Responsive Drug Release via Thermoresponsive Gatekeepers
9.5.2 Other Stimuli-Responsive Release (pH, Light) from Magnetic Silica Composites
9.5.2.1 pH-Responsive Release from Drug-Loaded Magnetic Silica
9.5.2.2 Light-Responsive Release from Drug-Loaded Magnetic Silica
9.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Section III In-Vitro Application of MNPs
Chapter 10 Current Progress in Magnetic Separation-Aided Biomedical Diagnosis Technology
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Working Principles of MS
10.2.1 High-Gradient MS
10.2.2 Low-Gradient MS
10.3 Application of HGMS and LGMS in Biomedical Diagnosis
10.4 Role of Different Control Parameters in MS-Aided Biomedical Diagnosis
10.4.1 Particle Size
10.4.1.1 Separation Rate and Selectivity
10.4.1.2 Magnetic Loading
10.4.1.3 Effect of Particle Size on Biotoxicity
10.4.2 Particle Concentration
10.4.2.1 Separation Rate
10.4.2.2 Sensitivity
10.4.2.3 Effect of Particle Concentration on Biotoxicity
10.5 Considerations in the Design and Implementation of MS-Aided Biomedical Diagnosis
10.5.1 Colloidal Stability
10.5.2 Particle Shape
10.5.3 Specificity
10.5.4 Hydrodynamic Effect
10.5.5 Spatial Arrangement of Magnetic Sources
10.6 Commercialized Magnetic Particles for Magnetic Cells Separation
10.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11 Magnetic Separation in Integrated Micro-Analytical Systems
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Principles
11.2.1 Magnetization
11.2.1.1 Magnetic Carriers
11.2.1.2 Permanent Magnets
11.2.1.3 Actively Controlled Magnets
11.2.2 Magnetic Force
11.2.3 Magnetic Separation
11.2.3.1 Magnetic Labelling
11.2.3.2 Size of Magnetic Carriers
11.3 Materials
11.3.1 Magnetic Carriers Used in Magnetic Separation Systems
11.3.1.1 Commercially Available Magnetic Carriers
11.3.1.2 Multifunctional Carriers
11.3.2 Permanent Magnets Used in Separation Systems
11.3.2.1 Test-Tube-Based Separation Systems
11.3.2.2 Permanent Magnets with Microfluidic Systems
11.3.3 Actively Controlled Magnets Used in Separation Systems
11.3.3.1 MACS System
11.3.3.2 Microfluidic Systems with Integrated Micromagnets
11.3.3.3 Active Control Using Solenoids
11.4 Applications
11.4.1 Applications of Magnetic Separation
11.4.1.1 Proteins
11.4.1.2 DNA/RNA
11.4.1.3 Bacteria and Viruses
11.4.2 Cell Separation: Alternative Methods
11.4.2.1 Physical Separation
11.4.2.2 Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting
11.4.2.3 Microfluidic Separation
11.4.3 Cell Separation: Methods of Magnetic Labelling
11.4.3.1 Magnetic Susceptibility of Cells
11.4.3.2 Cellular Uptake
11.4.3.3 Immunomagnetic Assay
11.4.4 Cell Separation: Cells Sorted in Immunomagnetic Separation
11.4.4.1 Stem Cells
11.4.4.2 Blood Cells
11.4.4.3 Circulating Tumour Cells
11.4.5 Cell Separation: Analysis Beyond Magnetic Separation
11.5 Conclusion
11.6 Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 12 Magnetic Nanoparticles for Organelle Separation
12.1 Introduction: Common Magnetic Separation in Biomedical Fields
12.1.1 Magnetic Separation of Cells and Bacteria
12.1.2 Magnetic Separation of Proteins
12.2 Importance of Magnetic Separation of Cellular Organelles
12.3 Magnetic Separation of Endosomes
12.3.1 Magnetic Separation of Different States of Endosomes
12.3.2 Magnetic Separation of Receptor-Mediated Endosomes
12.4 Magnetic Separation of Exosomes
12.4.1 Magnetic Separation of Exosomes Derived from Cancer Cells
12.4.2 Magnetic Separation of Exosomes Derived from Different Immune Cells
12.4.3 Magnetic Separation and Simultaneous Detection of Exosomes
12.5 Magnetic Separation of Mitochondria
12.5.1 Magnetic Separation of Mitochondria Derived from Mouse Tissues
12.5.2 Magnetic Separation of Mitochondria from Cells
12.6 Multifunctional Nanoparticles for Versatile Isolation of Cellular Organelles
12.6.1 Requirements for Magnetic Probes for Versatile Isolation of Cellular Organelles
12.6.2 Magnetic–Plasmonic Hybrid Nanoparticles
12.7 Conclusions and Future Outlook
References
Chapter 13 Magnetic Nanoparticle-Based Biosensing
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Background
13.2.1 Search Coil-Based Biosensor
13.2.1.1 Introduction to Search Coil Biosensor
13.2.1.2 Superparamagnetism
13.2.1.3 Néel and Brownian Relaxation Mechanisms
13.2.1.4 Nonlinear Magnetic Response
13.2.2 Magnetic Field Sensors for Biosensing
13.3 Search Coil Biosensors
13.3.1 Search Coil-Based Immunoassays
13.3.1.1 3D Immunoassays
13.3.1.2 Quasi-3D Immunoassays
13.3.2 Viscosity Measurements
13.4 GMR Biosensors
13.4.1 Fabrication of GMR Sensors
13.4.2 Surface Biofunctionalization
13.4.3 Detection Principle
13.4.4 GMR-Based Immunoassays
13.4.4.1 Detection System Setup and Signal Measurement
13.4.4.2 Multiplex Immunoassay
13.4.5 Magnetic Detection of Virus
13.4.6 Magnetic Detection of Mercury Ions
13.4.7 Competition-Based Magnetic Bioassays
13.4.8 Wash-Free Magnetic Bioassay
13.5 Conclusion and Perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
Section IV In-Vivo Application of MNPs
Chapter 14 Immunotoxicity and Safety Considerations for Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
14.1 Introduction: Clinical Application of Iron Oxide NPs
14.2 Immunotoxicity and safety issues associated with IONP
14.2.1 IONP Immunotoxic Profile
14.2.1.1 Coagulation System
14.2.1.2 Haemolysis
14.2.1.3 Opsonization and Monocyte–Phagocytic System
14.2.1.4 Protein Corona: A Potential Influence?
14.2.1.5 Immune System
14.3 Main Elements of Immunotoxicity Assessment
14.3.1 Endotoxin Contamination and Sterility
14.3.2 Blood Compatibility
14.4 Improving early design, assessment and safety considerations
14.4.1 Efficient Design of IO Formulations
14.5 Conclusion and future perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 15 Impact of Core and Functionalized Magnetic Nanoparticles on Human Health
15.1 IONP toxicity overview
15.1.1 Induction of Reactive Oxygen Species
15.1.2 Degradation of IONPs
15.1.3 Intracellular IONP Levels and Cellular Responses
15.2 Influence of the magnetic core
15.3 Influence of different surface coatings
15.4 Influence of the size and shape of IONPs
15.5 Influence of the exposure conditions used
15.6 Conclusion and Future Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 16 Magnetic Nanoparticles for Cancer Treatment Using Magnetic Hyperthermia
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Interactions between magnetic nanoparticles and alternating magnetic fields: an overview of the mechanisms involved in magnetic hyperthermia
16.3 Requisites for Efficient Magnetic Hyperthermia in Biological Contexts
16.3.1 Assessment of Heating Efficiency of Magnetic Nanoparticles In Vitro
16.3.2 Heating Efficiency of MNPs Immobilized in Tumours
16.4 Magnetic Hyperthermia Used in Combination with Other Approaches for Cancer Treatment
16.4.1 MHT Alone and in Combination with Radiotherapy
16.4.2 MHT and Chemotherapy
16.4.3 MHT and Immunomodulation
16.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 17 Nanoparticles for Nanorobotic Agents Dedicated to Cancer Therapy
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Main types of magnetic NPs used by nanorobotic agents
17.3 Aggregation of Nanorobotic Agents
17.4 Navigation and Targeting Methods for MNPs
17.5 Localization of MNPs
17.6 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
17.7 Magnetic Particle Imaging
17.8 Hyperthermia Produced by MNPs in Nanorobotic Agents
17.9 Microencapsulation
17.10 Diagnostics
17.11 Magnetotactic Bacteria
17.12 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18 Smart Nanoparticles and the Effects in Magnetic Hyperthermia In Vivo
18.1 Introduction
18.2 NP Specifications for Magnetic Hyperthermia
18.3 Magnetic Field Applicators for Magnetic Hyperthermia
18.4 Impact of Heating on Target Tumour Cells
18.5 Temperature Distribution in The Tumour Region
18.6 Therapeutic Strategies of Hyperthermia In Vivo
18.6.1 Passive Targeting of NPs for Magnetic Hyperthermia
18.6.2 Actively Targeted NPs in the Tumour Site for Magnetic Hyperthermia
18.7 Idea of Combining Magnetic Hyperthermia with MRI
18.8 Combination of Hyperthermia with Chemotherapy and Radiotherapy
18.9 Conclusions and Future Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 19 Noninvasive Guidance Scheme of Magnetic Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery in Alzheimer’s Disease
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1 AD and Its Treatment
19.1.2 BBB Crossing with Magnetic Force
19.2 Magnetic Drug Delivery to the Brain
19.2.1 Overview of the Proposed Drug Delivery Scheme
19.2.2 Electromagnetic Actuator for Guidance of NPs
19.2.3 Functionalized Magnetic Field for Sticking Prevention and Efficient Guidance
19.2.4 Simulations of Aggregated MNP Steering in Blood Vessels
19.3 Real-time Navigation of MNPs with MPI
19.3.1 The Schematic of MPI-Based Monitoring
19.3.2 Integration of MPI and Magnetic Actuation System
19.3.3 MPI-Based Real Time Navigation System
19.4 AD Magnetic Drug Targeting
19.4.1 Best Conditions for Crossing the BBB
19.5 Conclusions and Future Outlook
References
Chapter 20 Design, Fabrication and Characterization of Magnetic Porous PDMS as an On-Demand Drug Delivery Device
20.1 Introduction
20.1.1 Localized Drug Delivery
20.1.2 Controlled Drug Release System
20.1.3 Passive Controlled Delivery of Drugs
20.1.3.1 Polymeric Drug Delivery
20.1.3.2 Osmosis-Based Methods
20.1.4 Active Controlled Delivery of Drugs
20.1.4.1 Electrical Stimuli
20.1.4.2 Magnetic Stimuli
20.1.5 Current Challenges
20.1.6 Magnetic Sponge as an On-Demand Drug Delivery Device
20.2 Materials and Methods
20.2.1 Porous PDMS
20.2.2 Magnetic Porous PDMS
20.2.2.1 Task 1: Preparation of a Porous Scaffold
20.2.2.2 Task 2: Magnetic PDMS
20.2.2.3 Magnetic Porous PDMS
20.2.3 Characterization of Magnetic Porous PDMS
20.2.3.1 Porosity
20.2.3.2 Carbonyl Iron Concentration
20.2.4 Drug Delivery Device Fabrication
20.2.4.1 Reservoir
20.2.4.2 Membrane
20.2.4.3 Assembling
20.2.4.4 Plasma Surface Treatment
20.2.4.5 Device Activation
20.2.5 Device Characterization
20.2.5.1 Methylene Blue Release
20.2.5.2 Docetaxel Release
20.3 Results and Discussions
20.3.1 Methylene Blue Release
20.3.1.1 Influence of the Magnetic Field
20.3.2 Controlled Docetaxel Release
20.3.2.1 Experimental Results
20.3.2.2 Background Leakage
20.3.2.3 In Vitro Cell Study
20.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 21 Magnetic Particle Transport in Complex Media
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Engineering the Interface
21.3 Particle Motion in Three Model Biological Polymers
21.3.1 Salient Features of Viscoelastic Environments: The ‘Particle’s Eye View’
21.3.2 Transport through the Extracellular Matrix
21.3.3 Transport through Mucus
21.3.4 Transport through the Skin
21.4 Combined Fields to Enhance Transport
21.5 Nonspherical Particles in Viscoelastic Biomaterials
21.5.1 Rods
21.5.2 Helices
21.5.3 Rolled Up Sheets for Drilling
21.6 Outlook and Future Directions
References
Chapter 22 Magnetic Nanoparticles for Neural Engineering
22.1 Historical Summary and State of the Art
22.2 Magnetism of Single- Domain Nanoparticles
22.2.1 Magnetic Field–Magnetic Nanoparticle Interactions
22.2.2 Physical Features of Magnetic Nanoparticles
22.2.3 Instrumentation: Simulation and Application of Magnetic Forces
22.3 Magnetic Actuation on Neural Cells
22.3.1 Effects of DC Magnetic Fields on Neural Cells
22.3.2 Magnetic Forces Can Actuate on Cells
22.4 Nerve Repair
22.4.1 Magnetic Guidance
22.4.2 Neuroprotection
22.4.3 Magnetofection
22.4.4 Magnetotransduction
22.4.5 Scavenging Strategies
22.4.6 Cell Therapies
22.5 Outlook for the Future
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 23 Radionuclide Labeling and Imaging of Magnetic Nanoparticles
23.1 Role of Imaging in the Development of Magnetic Nanoparticles for Diagnostic and Therapeutic Applications
23.1.1 Background
23.1.2 Multimodal Imaging of NPs
23.1.3 Nuclear Imaging in Preclinical Studies of NPs
23.2 Imaging Methods to Label NPs and Track Them In Vivo
23.2.1 General Considerations for Radiolabeling and Imaging Studies
23.2.2 Formation of a Radiolabeled MNP
23.2.2.1 Chelator Free Radiolabeling Methods
23.2.2.2 Chelator Conjugate Based Radiolabeling Methods
23.2.2.2.1 Final-Step Radiolabeling
23.2.2.2.2 Two-Step Radiolabeling
23.2.2.3 Other Radiolabeling Methodologies
23.2.3 In Vivo Imaging Evaluation Studies
23.2.3.1 Selection of Animal Models
23.2.3.2 Scanning Protocol
23.2.4 Translation to Human Clinical Trials
23.2.4.1 Clinically Approved NPs
23.2.4.2 Issues for Clinical Translation
23.3 New Applications
23.4 Conclusions and Future Perspective
References
Chapter 24 Red Blood Cells Constructs to Prolong the Life Span of Iron-Based Magnetic Resonance Imaging/Magnetic Particle Imaging Contrast Agents In Vivo
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Red blood cells
24.3 Use of RBCs to deliver SPIO- and USPIO-based NPs
24.3.1 Strategies for SPION Carriage by RBCs
24.3.1.1 Loading Procedures for SPION Encapsulation in RBCs
24.3.1.2 Not All SPIO NP Can Be Encapsulated into RBCs
24.3.2 In Vivo Delivery of MNPs by RBCs
24.4 SPIO-Loaded RBCs as Tracers
24.5 Challenges and Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 25 Stimuli-Regulated Cancer Theranostics Based on Magnetic Nanoparticles
25.1 Introduction
25.2 External Stimuli-Triggered Theranostics
25.2.1 Magnetic Field-Responsive Theranostics
25.2.1.1 Magnetic Specific Targeting
25.2.1.2 Magnetically Triggered Drug/Gene Delivery
25.2.1.3 Magnetic Hyperthermia
25.2.1.4 Magnetically Regulated Cell Fate Control
25.2.1.5 MRI-Monitoring Cancer Therapy
25.2.1.5.1 T1 Positive Contrast Agents
25.2.1.5.2 T2 Positive Contrast Agents
25.2.1.5.3 Dual (T1- and T2-) Weighted MRI Contrast Agents
25.2.1.5.4 Dual Agents
25.2.2 Light-active Theranostics
25.2.2.1 Photothermal Therapy
25.2.2.2 Photodynamic Therapy
25.2.2.3 Light-Triggered Delivery
25.2.2.4 Image-Guided Therapy
25.3 Internal Stimuli-Triggered Theranostics
25.3.1 pH-Responsive Theranostics
25.3.1.1 Ionizable Chemical Groups
25.3.1.1.1 Organic Material
25.3.1.1.2 Inorganic Material
25.3.1.1.3 Hybrid Material
25.3.1.2 Acid-Labile Chemical Bonds
25.3.1.3 Gas-Generating Precursors
25.3.2 Reduction-Responsive Theranostics
25.4 Multimodality Theranostics
25.5 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
Section V Good Manufacturing Practice
Chapter 26 Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) of Magnetic Nanoparticles
26.1 Introduction: Background and Driving Forces
26.2 GMP Requirements
26.3 From Research and Development to GMP Environment
26.3.1 Scale-Up
26.3.2 Quality by Design
26.4 Prerequisites of GMP Conformed Manufacturing
26.4.1 Quality Control Analytics

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